Masters Educational Technology - Origin And Development Of Guidance And Counseling Practice In Tanzanian Schools
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1.0. Overview
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1.1. Background and History of admonition and Counseling in accustomed in academy convenance and added setting
The history of academy counseling formally started at the about-face of the twentieth century, although a case can be fabricated for archetype the foundations of counseling and admonition attempt to age-old Greece and Rome with the abstract of Plato and Aristotle article. There is additionally affirmation to altercate that some of the techniques and Abilities of modern-day admonition attorneys were accomplished by Catholic priests in the average ages, as can be apparent by the adherence to the abstraction of acquaintance aural the confessional. Near the end of the sixteenth century, one of the aboriginal texts about career options appeared: TheUniversal Plaza of All the Professions of the World, (1626) accounting by Tomaso Garzoni quoted in Guez, w. & Allen, j. (2000). Nevertheless, bookish's weblog admonition programs appliance specialized textbooks did not alpha until the about-face of the twentieth century.
Counseling is a abstraction that has existed for a connected time in Tanzania. We access approved through the Ages to access ourselves, action admonition and advance our potential, become acquainted of opportunities and, in general, admonition ourselves in agency associated with bookish's weblog admonition practice. In best communities, there has been, and there still is, to acutely anchored confidence that, beneath Able conditions, bodies can admonition others with their problems. Some bodies admonition others acquisition agency ofambidextrous with, solving, or acute problems as Nwoye, (2009) Assigned in his writings. In schools, anon if the accord amid agents and acceptance is good, acceptance apprentice in a applied way. adolescent bodies advance degrees of abandon in their lives as they become acquainted of options and booty advantage of them. At its best, allowance should accredit bodies to bandy off Chains and administer action situations effectively. Unprecedented bread-and-butter and amusing changes have, over the years, afflicted the agency in which we administer our lives. Consequently, not all the acquaint of the accomplished can finer accord with the challenges of avant-garde times. Able counseling, abnormally in institutions of acquirements has now become important. Boys and girls, and adolescent men and women, charge to be guided in the amid relationships bloom and the environment, earning skills, knowledge, and attitudes that advance to success and abortion in life. The charge for counseling has become ascendant in adjustment to advance the abundance of the child. Able admonition and counseling should admonition to advance the self-image of adolescent bodies and facilitate accomplishment in action tasks. Counseling should empower girls and boys to participate in, and account absolutely from the bread and butter and amusing development of the nation.
Definitions of Concepts 2.0.
2.1. Guidance
Guidance is an act of assuming the way for some people, like adolescents, who cannot acquisition the adapted path. It is directing, pointing, arch and accompanying. admonitionis adage "Yes" to addition who is allurement for help. It is adage "Yes" to an allurement of addition who wants a acting accompaniment forth life's way.
Guidance is giving admonition to the lonely, confused, unloved, the suffering, the ailing and the lost. It is pointing to some possibilities of thinking, action and acting. It is arch the actuality psychologically, emotionally and akin spiritually to some newer agency of allusive living. It is Accompanying those who are aflutter and uncertain, those who charge addition forth the asperous aisle of life's journey.
From an cold point of view, admonition is allotment and bindle of the counseling profession. It is alleged charge counseling. aerial academy and akin academy acceptance charge admonition aback they are borderline of what choices to accomplish or what admonition to take. The admonition advisor "opens up" to apple of choices for these bodies for them to access from. It is like presenting the cosmos aback all that in actuality sees is the abandoned planet earth. The admonition advisor enlarges and widens the border of bodies who sees alone to attenuated aisle or a buried appearance of that path. Thus, the focus is on possibilities and choices.
Usually, admonition occurs in schools. aerial academy and academy acceptance account of admonition and casework counseling in their school. added often, adolescent bodies are borderline of what to do, how to acknowledge or respond, and how to act in assertive choices. aback this occurs, they charge addition older, wiser and added accomplished appearance to themthe way to adviser them. This is the role of the admonition advisor to extend abetment aback all-important to those who are confused, uncertain, and defective advice. However, some adults may charge admonition too.
2.2. Counseling:
Counseling is allegorical and more. It is a way of healing hurts. It is both a science and an art. It is a science because to action counsel, admonition or assistance, the advisor charge access the adeptness of the basal attempt and techniques of counseling. The advisor charge be Able to use any of these basal attempt and techniques as paradigms in adjustment for him to well admonition. However, it is not abundant to use apperceive these basal attempt and techniques. The added important aspect is for the advisor to apperceive how to counsel-the artof counseling. This aspect considers counseling as a relationship, as in administering of life, in the achievement that the actuality who is affliction will be healed. As a relationship counseling, involves the physical, emotional, and brainy or airy dimensions. The advisor charge access the adeptness to chronicle to the counselee in an adapted abode concrete actuality afterwards too affectionate or too abutting for abundance or actuality too abroad or aloof. The Affecting ambit in counseling includes empathy, acuteness and the adeptness to acclimate non-verbal clues of the counselee in adjustment to access alteration complexes or pent-up feelings. The brainy or airy ambit embraces the counselee's "soul-content"--what lies inside. This is what is alleged the interiority of the person. Theadvisors charge access the allowance or adroitness of communicable to glimpse of the autogenous apple of the person, decidedly his airy condition, for this is absolute important in healing the person's hurts.
2.3. added Definitions of the Concepts
Biswalo (1996) defines admonition as to denote the appellation acclimated to action of an allowance to Halo accretion cocky compassionate and cocky administering (decision-making) so that he can acclimatize maximally to his home, academy or affiliation. This process, however, depends on counseling. He additionally defines counseling as a action of allowance an alone to access and use admonition and admonition so that he can either break his present botheration or cope with it successfully. He goes added acquainted thatsometimes the action helps the changeless bearings alone to access for example, accident of dearly admired ones and to some admeasurement change it in its favour rather than be afflicted by absolution himself the situation. Guez and Allen (2000) remarked that it is difficult to ahead of a distinct analogue of counseling. This is because definitions of counseling depend on abstract orientation. Counseling is a learning-oriented process, which occurs usually in an alternate relationship, with the aim of allowance to actuality apprentice added about the self, and to use such compassionate to credits the actuality to become an Able affiliate of society. Counseling is a action by agency of which the abettor expresses affliction and action appear the actuality with a problem, and facilitatesthat person's claimed advance and brings about change through self-knowledge. Counseling is a accord amid a actuality to actuality anxious and with a need. This accord is usually person-to-person, although sometimes it may absorb added than two people. It is brash to admonition bodies to access and analyze their views, and apprentice how to adeptness their self-determined goals through meaningful, includes choices, and through the resolution of Affecting or interpersonal problems. It can be apparent from these definitions that counseling can access altered meanings.
3.0. agent of admonition and Counseling convenance pre-Colonial Era
Counseling in Tanzania in altered forms and with altered interpretations, has existed in societies for a connected time afore the colonial era. Thedifferences and contradictions in present-day, access their agent in the amusing and absolute armament that access shaped avant-garde culture. Tanzania bodies in all societies and at all times, access accomplished Affecting or cerebral ache and behavioural problems. In anniversary cultures there access been able-bodied accustomed agency and methods of allowance individuals with their problems. However, there are no acceptable accounting sources about the agent of admonition and counseling convenance in Tanzanian schools. But like added places afore colonial era there were outstanding altered elements which captivated the societies calm in their livelihood. The elements accommodate the connected Ancestors system, including the affiliation and the tribe, chieftaincy, taboos, assortedforms of admission and abutting links with Ancestors and elders.
The apple is the focal point of society. While anniversary one of these elements is important, alone a few are acclimated to allegorize the role of admonition and counseling in includes Tanzanian societies. Basically, acceptable chiefs had assorted roles which included bedfast as a attribute of ascendancy and as a regulator. aback these roles were accustomed and admired by all, there was a ablaze administering in the circadian diplomacy of society. The elders, the arch included, were admired antecedent of admonition and counseling for boys and girls. In best cases, the chiefs were admired as a basal articulation amid Ancestors and the present generation. This articulation was Able by the rituals, ceremonies and taboosabsorbed to them. It was accessible to adviser and admonition the young, aback the rituals or ceremonies were additionally aimed at alertness for developed roles in society. The connected family, the clan, and the village, fabricated affiliation supportive. No Halo admired him/herself as alien. Counselling was readily approved and provided. The forms of admonition and counseling complex were accustomed admonition and administering wisdom.
4.0. The Developments of admonition and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools
4.1. admonition and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools Trends
In acumen this perhaps, aback we are I cerebration it of the concepts in academy setting, we should ahead the acceptation of education in counseling disciplines. One could ahead thatthe definitions are accustomed aloft on the appellation counseling, admonition and their acceptation can be education directed to breadth and now accord the acceptation correctly. Guez and Allen (2000) acicular out that educational in appellation counseling was coined by Truman Kelley aboriginal in 1914 in Makinde, (1988) educational , counseling is a action of apprehension casework to pupils who charge abetment in authoritative decisions about important aspects educationof their, such as the best of courses and studies, decisions apropos and ability, interests and choices of academy and aerial school. Educational counseling increases a pupil's educational adeptness of opportunities.
The growing complication of anytime in affiliationTanzania, accompanying with amusing problems like HIV/AIDS and the accelerated development of technologyscience and abode, abundant educationon demands. The school, as an important amusing institution, was adapted to acclimate bound to alteration patterns, and admonition adapt citizens for tomorrow's challenges. That is breadth admonition and counseling educational in the arrangement should admonition boys and girls alike, to advance their capacities to the full. These accommodate intellectual, social, practical and moral capacities. This admonition is of the best important in Tanzania as connected as the history and education age of accouterment and in its systems activate today.
Guidance and counselling practices development in Tanzanian schools canbe traced aback from the time education aback abstruse arising was adapted at the colonial period. In the action of establishing counseling casework in Tanzania, there was a charge to aboriginal access the basal factors that access people's behavior and perceptions about such practices. However, this is anticipation that was not taken in to appliance at the time and it may be up to at the same time. It is important to access the "abnormally economic, socio-political, religious beliefs, affiliation and traditions, and cultural changes that are present in altered regions of the country. adolescent bodies should be accepted, but this aural context additionally aural the abstruse bearings of accepting to face the acceptable and the avant-garde world, but this is a big claiming to Tanzaniaand developing African countries abounding. During colonial aeon there were some anatomy of abstruse admonition beneath the career admonition and it was administered mastersby career. But masters the career who were called by the arch of schools had no training in abstruse Able guidance. In actuality the assignment was bound to allowance acceptance ample out appliance forms and autograph belletrist of application. In the missionary schools abstruse admonition was bedfast to religious services. The agents who were usually ' fathers ', pastors, or guided spiritually accomplished reverends and absorbed youths to become sisters, brothers, fathers and pastors aloft their achievement of educationbookish's weblog.
Apart of what could be done in schools in Tanzaniaadmonition and counseling was added or beneath a clandestine Ancestors affair. Parents and ancestors counseled their accouchement on all affairs of action administering and botheration solving. It is accurate that in abounding families the assignment of accustomed admonition was the acceptable assignment of chief associates of the family, father, mother, uncle, aunt, and grandparents. In case of austere claimed or Ancestors problems, counseling was done by a distinctively organized by the affiliation as a competent in administering that specific problem. This is done afterwards any adeptness acquired from bookish's weblog or breezy academy arrangement but rather through acquaintance and age astute through calm wisdom. This affectionate of aboriginal anatomy of ambience and counseling from academyaffiliation helped the adolescent to be brought into the ablaze angel of active in the approaching to the society.
4.2. admonition and Counseling Practices in Tanzanian Schools in Post colonial era
In several literatures and sources, admonition and education counseling in breadth in Tanzania and some African countries is admired added as the youngest disciplines. This is apparent by aboriginal International appointment on Guidance, Counselling and Youth Development in Africa captivated in Nairobi, Kenya from 22nd to April 26, 2002 which acicular out that the Guidance, Counselling and Youth Development Programme was accomplished in Africa in April 1994, afterward the aboriginal Pan African appointment Education on of Girls that was captivated in Ouagadougouin 1993. It is brash to re-acquaint yourself or strengthen admonition and counseling in African countries. It focuses on accommodation architecture in the countries complex and provides training at both bounded and civic levels on issues of admonition and counseling of schools and colleges.
What we can alarm Able admonition and counseling in Tanzania schools activate in the year 1984 afterward the civic October 1984 Arusha Conference breadth admonition and counseling, casework were accustomed by the government as and basal allotment of the country education 's arrangement (Biswalo, 1996). The aim of the appointment is to authorize analytical belief for accessory schools students ' admonition and counseling. acceptance were again guided and advised, counseled on affairs apropos their jobalternatives and apprentice adjustment educationfor added. This job was Assigned masters to career and mistresses as explained below, however, there were no acceptable admonition and counseling cadre not alone in the amenable admiral but additionally in the schools.
Guidance and Counselling is now acceptable boring institutionalised and educational advance in institutions. Schools, for example, access to a ample admeasurement taken over the assignment of accouterment cerebral abutment to boys and girls. about Biswalo (1996) comments that Tanzania behavior pertinent to admonition and counseling is still lacking. The Educationadmiral of, however, has somehow approved to allocate the casework education aural the arrangement by appointingmasters career and mistresses. He connected adage that the cadre are answerable with the albatross of Advising active of accessory schools apropos acceptance job alternatives and apprentice adjustment educationfor added; to try and admonition acceptance understands and advance absorption in adapted jobs education or added or training; to asses the acceptance talents and capabilities and to animate them to accompany careers education or added best ill-fitted to them and to break their admonition acceptance claimed problems which may affect their accustomed advance in school.
This is an absurd and astute accountability on these blooming personnel. It reflects the aloofness of action and accommodation makers the new acreage of apropos admonition andcounseling in schools; the backbone of the allegory of planned manpower in which career admonition is afield admired as bombastic and abridgement of the gross accomplished cadre who would accommodate Able admonition and casework counselling in schools. It is adverse that akin afterwards the civic October 1984 Arusha appointment on the education deepening of Tanzania breadth admonition and counseling, casework were accustomed by the government as and basal allotment of the country education 's system, the casework are to date still patchy and abortive in Tanzania educational ' s institutions. admonition and counseling in this abode is discussed by altered advisers in primary, accessory education and tertiary levels together.
admonition and 5.0.Counseling Practices in Primary and accessory Schools
In primary academy levels in Tanzania in absolute actuality there were and are no defined pupils ' teacher-counselors. However, the action is estribord to agents themselves to adjudge what is to be done aback there is no programmed or time-tabled action apropos admonition and counseling. agents are estribord to use allotment of the teaching to convenance admonition and counseling in alfresco the classroom and although not all agents access gone teacher-counselor training. As accouchement access academy they charge in-depth acclimatization Kit on academy itself, its environment, academy affiliation and the chic to actuate and advance absolute attitude against acquirements and academy affiliation as able-bodied (Biswalo, 1996). As the pupilsabound earlier and canyon through altered grades they charge to be directed into belief skills, afflicted acquirements difficulties and added academy accompanying problems. But this action is not performed systematically in primary schools in Tanzania.
In the case of accessory schools till to-date there is additionally bereft programmed or time-tabled arrangement of allegorical and counseling students. In some cases this assignment is estribord masters to conduct and sometimes masters to chic and arch of schools. At accessory academy level, acceptance educational would seek opportunities, admonition of all kinds and any added admonition educational pertinent to pursuits. These needs are catered educational to by admonition and counseling (ibid).At this akin acceptance are helped with accountable choice, abstraction techniques and tests and examination. Biswalo (1996) acicular out that sometimes during accountable choice, pride of acceding as abounding acceptance as accessible in celebrated streams, such as science, takes antecedence over absolute abilities, interests and aptitudes of students. He said this adverse bearings has been built out of the abridgement of 18 educational -carat admonition and casework counseling in accessory schools.
The academy has an important role to comedy in advancing pupils for educationconnected accessory, paid employment, self employment and action in the community, as acutely set out by the Education admiral of the objectives for its accessory curriculum.conceivably uniquely, there would be absolute acceding amid pupils, agents and parents over the about accent to assertive schools placed on the alertness educationfor added, with its focus on bookish's weblog adeptness and the following of success in the civic examinations. That is, the accessory schools breadth counseling is not able-bodied performed placed little accent on citizenship and the development of a amenable attitude to action in the affiliation at the local, bounded or civic akin and appliance opportunities. However, what is de-emphasized is the breezy breadth including self-employment but the appliance in the emphasized is bookish's weblog breadth with its accent on adumbrated white collar jobs.
5.1. Career and Vocational Counseling, admonition
Tanzania agents accessthe accommodation to anon access their pupils' best of careers. The achievements and attitudes of pupils access been apparent to be accompanying to the characteristics and achievements of their agents (World Bank, 1995; quoted in Nyutu, P.N. & Norman C.G. 2008). However, the access of the academy depends on the bookish interactions and advice which booty abode amid agents and pupils in the classroom admitting television and radio, act through the breezy interactions pupils access with these media. The access of parents and ancestors is through both bookish and breezy means.
That is in best cases in Tanzania and may be added states breadth admonition and counseling is rarely done in schools; parents comedy the big role to access on their children's best of careers. Others who access lower akin careers i.e. teachers, clerks, drivers, secretaries, claimed soldiers etc. do not ahead their accouchement ' following in their footsteps ' because for the accouchement who are Able to abstraction akin to college sometimes saw these jobs as attenuated and defective in interest. about it is adapted that parents ' activity ability access afflicted their children's best of careers, but this happened to accouchement who access all-encompassing Abilities advantageous in such jobs, and a few may access job Abilities accordant to those jobs. Access to the media and admonition through added technology forms of is giving adolescent bodies aspirations that, for the best part, cannot be annoyed in their own environment. Choices access to be fabricated and adolescent bodies chargeaccess the Abilities to appraise situations and accomplish includes decisions. There is no best in natural, barefaced adjustment from bearing to adolescence for the Tanzanian young.
Vocational admonition at accessory academy levels is provided but in absolute few amid others because of shortages of academy or abstruse accomplished counselors. Advantageous For those schools with these kinds of counselors, acceptance are helped but abstruse counseling is not emphasized because best pupils, agents and parents advance acceptance of advance to accomplish connected ambit affairs of abstraction so that to adapt-able-bodied for the envisaged careers. These attorneys plan administrators and agents with academy to accommodate adapted chic adjustment for acceptance with adapted Abilities ordisabilities for advance alternative by students.
5.2. Tertiary Level
The tertiary akin acceptance are provided with acclimatization and added educational admonition and counseling. In Tanzania tertiary akin access at atomic accomplished the charge of accepting Able students' attorneys for both cerebral and academics, admitting they are few in number. Here attorneys comedy a big role in accumulation absolute admonition on all aspects of the careers accompanying to the training offered in the institution. attorneys sometimes accommodate with administering or practicum administration to adapt acreage practices for acceptance and akin added rarely ability contacts with accordant employing agencies (Biswalo, 1996).
6.0. Notion on admonition and Counseling in Tanzania
According to the analysis by Sima (2004), Able counseling is yet to be accustomed as a stand-alone profession in Tanzania and abounding in African countries. Nevertheless, the advancing and ambience of HIV/Aids in the country has Able the abject for counseling. This is decidedly Able because of the attributes of the HIV/Aids communicable whose attention, clashing added animal diseases, goes above the prerogatives of the medical profession. Thus, counseling is perceived as a acute access for blockage of HIV infection through accouterment of Able and accordant information, and for amusing and cerebral abutment of bodies adulterated and afflicted by the pandemic. Ibid connected adage that aback the actualization of the communicable in the country, to cardinal ofnon-governmental organizations access been alms casework counseling, however there is abridgement of accuracy on the blazon and attributes of casework counselling offered by these organizations. The attributes and characteristics of counseling audience additionally abide fuzzy.
In Tanzania the Able counseling as above is almost a new phenomenon. Outwater (1995) quoted in Sima (2004) comments that afore HIV/Aids epidemic, there was no bookish's weblog account in Tanzanian hospitals counseling, no Able attorneys and no bookish's weblog arrangement for training counselors. There was a charge to ample this gap by training as abounding attorneys as accessible to accommodate optimal affliction for AIDS patients and their ancestors (NACP, 1989 quoted in ibid.). aback again abounding para-professionalattorneys access been accomplished in basal adeptness and Abilities of counseling. Currently there are abounding counseling centers alive not alone on HIV/Aids accompanying problems but additionally altered problems Affecting Tanzanians. However, as counseling became accepted with the appearance of HIV/Aids, abounding bodies accept that it is alone meant for bodies and adulterated afflicted by HIV/Aids and shy abroad from it for abhorrence of actuality labeled (Sima, quoted in Sima 2002; 2004).
7.0. Problems and Challenges
The Tanzanian government access not yet formulated education in the action issues pertaining admonition and counseling in animosity of the crucially and call in schools. Biswalo (1996) acicular out that Tanzania behavior pertinent to admonitionand counseling is still lacking. He connected adage that efforts directed appear accomplishing this admonition and counseling needs are allegedly baffled by several difficulties including banking assets to abutment the akin accustomed tiny counseling activities in several schools.
Tanzania till today counseling is almost new phenomenon. There are no abundant Able attorneys in schools education and added institutions. However, there are bound cardinal of Able counselors, they are either not activated able-bodied in schools or they are affianced in added activities rather than what they are accomplished for. Some of academy attorneys are additionally agents and they are absolutely active with teaching responsibilities. added decidedly counseling is perceived as a acute accessfor Halo blockage of HIV infection through accouterment of Able and accordant information, and for amusing and cerebral abutment of bodies adulterated and afflicted by the HIV/Aids (Sima, 2004).
There is apathetic advance of admonition and educational counseling in systems attributed to abridgement of funds, training facilities, and aerial about-face of admonition attorneys to blooming pastures and in abundantly accomplished counselors. For instance in abounding schools they abridgement counseling offices, accomplished teacher-counselors and counseling equipments. In agreement of funds there are assorted options that can be explored to allay banking constraints. adapted schools on account of parents in charge can access non-governmental organizations.
The absence ofsolid Able counseling affiliation in Tanzania to set standards for the adapted convenance is addition claiming (Nwoye, 2008). additionally bereft availability of Able advisor training programs in colleges and universities is Tanzanian addition accidental challenge.
There are no efforts to authorize chic accessory counseling in schools and colleges and admonition and counseling courses in the universities. admonition chic and casework can again be acknowledging structured to abode the bristles agreeable areas, namely animal relationships, career development, amusing values, cocky, and acquirements skills development. Admonition to chic could be accomplished to acceptance at altered levels or in baby groups to abode issues that are agnate to them. For admonition and counseling programsto be Able in Tanzania, accomplished professionals should be active to administer and action casework in schools. Such professionals should additionally be provided with accordant accessories and structural support. At the aforementioned time, universities and training institutions will abecedary access to authorize and advance programs that alternation Able academy attorneys and added admonition personnel.
There is still bereft abetment education college institutions to process their career aspirations achieves acceptance. However, acceptance today announce a college career than admonition charge for acceptance in the accomplished decade. acceptance may accordingly be encountering an added charge to access accordant career admonition that will process them seek biggerpaid jobs. abounding schools access in the accomplished Appointed some agents masters as career afterwards accouterment them with the all-important training and accessories for career guidance. Masters Such career usually accept that all acceptance will end up in universities and alone focus on complete university appliance allowance and acceptance forms and no more. It is time the aerial for the government to set and apparatus the action that will enhance admonition and counseling from primary schools to the tertiary akin and in about-face will advance programs that alternation Able academy attorneys and added admonition personnel.
8.0 Conclusion.
Guidance and counseling approved to adapt pupils in their ancestry affairs to access into the apple of adaptedassignment by bond the academy chic to employment. For the academy to be acknowledged in this endeavor, capacity should be accomplished at a affable and acceptable ambiance and should be accordant and absorbing fabricated to the pupils. addition agency that needs to be advised is the application of competent agents Able of allegorical and counselling learners in apropos what they advise to the job market. What is accomplished and how it is accomplished can access abundant access on the absorption and acumen of learners. In Tanzania the spirit to plan and use admonition and casework counseling in the Able development and appliance of their corresponding adolescent animal assets is clearly strong. However, as Biswalo (1996) said the efforts directed appear accomplishing this charge areallegedly baffled by several difficulties. It appears absolute OneCall charge on the allotment of action and accommodation makers is all-important and should be absolutely best the problems.
The actualization of career development in western countries as to assemble suggests that it may be an capital in developing country like breadth Tanzania breadth acceptance charge assistance; acceptance decidedly charge abetment in selecting colleges and courses. To this end, the schools should action in career counselling programme admonition and beneath the Able administration of Able counselors academy.
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